American Journal of Kidney Diseases
Volume 52, Issue 5 , Pages 994-1009 , November 2008

Management of Hyperuricemia and Gout in CKD

  • Angelo L. Gaffo, MD

      Affiliations

    • Birmingham VA Medical Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL
    • ,
  • Kenneth G. Saag, MD, MSc

      Affiliations

    • Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress correspondence to Kenneth G. Saag, MD, MSc, FOT 820, 1530 3rd Ave S, Birmingham, AL 35294

References 

  1. Kang DH, Nakagawa T, Feng L, et al. A role for uric acid in the progression of renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2888–2897
  2. Ford ES, Giles WH, Dietz WH. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among US adults: Findings from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA. 2002;287:356–359
  3. Masuo K, Kawaguchi H, Mikami H, Ogihara T, Tuck ML. Serum uric acid and plasma norepinephrine concentrations predict subsequent weight gain and blood pressure elevation. Hypertension. 2003;42:474–480
  4. Harris CM, Lloyd DC, Lewis J. The prevalence and prophylaxis of gout in England. J Clin Epidemiol. 1995;48:1153–1158
  5. Stamp L, Searle M, O'Donnell J, Chapman P. Gout in solid organ transplantation: A challenging clinical problem. Drugs. 2005;65:2593–2611
  6. Becker MA, Jolly M. Clinical gout and the pathogenesis of hyperuricemia. In:  Koopman WJ,  Moreland LW editor. Arthritis and Allied Conditions: A Textbook of Rheumatology. (ed 15). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005;p. 2303–2339
  7. Kudo E, Kamatani N, Tezuka O, et al. Familial juvenile hyperuricemic nephropathy: Detection of mutations in the uromodulin gene in five Japanese families. Kidney Int. 2004;65:1589–1597
  8. Enomoto A, Kimura H, Chairoungdua A, et al. Molecular identification of a renal urate anion exchanger that regulates blood urate levels. Nature. 2002;417:447–452
  9. Terkeltaub R, Bushinsky DA, Becker MA. Recent developments in our understanding of the renal basis of hyperuricemia and the development of novel antihyperuricemic therapeutics. Arthritis Res Ther. 2006;8(suppl 1):S4
  10. Ichida K, Hosoyamada M, Hisatome I, et al. Clinical and molecular analysis of patients with renal hypouricemia in Japan—Influence of URAT1 gene on urinary urate excretion. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2004;15:164–173
  11. Taniguchi A, Urano W, Yamanaka M, et al. A common mutation in an organic anion transporter gene, SLC22A12, is a suppressing factor for the development of gout. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:2576–2577
  12. Lipkowitz MS, Leal-Pinto E, Rappoport JZ, Najfeld V, Abramson RG. Functional reconstitution, membrane targeting, genomic structure, and chromosomal localization of a human urate transporter. J Clin Invest. 2001;107:1103–1115
  13. Bieber JD, Terkeltaub RA. Gout: On the brink of novel therapeutic options for an ancient disease. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:2400–2414
  14. Terkeltaub RA. Pathogenesis and treatment of crystal-induced inflammation. In:  Koopman WJ,  Moreland LW editor. Arthritis and Allied Conditions: A Textbook of Rheumatology. (ed 15). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005;p. 2357–2372
  15. Kim YG, Huang XR, Suga S, et al. Involvement of macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) in experimental uric acid nephropathy. Mol Med. 2000;6:837–848
  16. Sidiropoulos PI, Goulielmos G, Voloudakis GK, Petraki E, Boumpas DT. Inflammasome and rheumatic diseases: Evolving concepts. Ann Rheum Dis. 2008;67:1382–1389
  17. Campion EW, Glynn RJ, DeLabry LO. Asymptomatic hyperuricemia (Risks and consequences in the Normative Aging Study). Am J Med. 1987;82:421–426
  18. Perez-Ruiz F, Atxotegi J, Hernando I, Calabozo M, Nolla JM. Using serum urate levels to determine the period free of gouty symptoms after withdrawal of long-term urate-lowering therapy: A prospective study. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;55:786–790
  19. Choi HK, Liu S, Curhan G. Intake of purine-rich foods, protein, and dairy products and relationship to serum levels of uric acid: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:283–289
  20. Choi HK, Atkinson K, Karlson EW, Willett W, Curhan G. Purine-rich foods, dairy and protein intake, and the risk of gout in men. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:1093–1103
  21. Choi HK, Curhan G. Beer, liquor, and wine consumption and serum uric acid level: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;51:1023–1029
  22. Choi HK, Atkinson K, Karlson EW, Willett W, Curhan G. Alcohol intake and risk of incident gout in men: A prospective study. Lancet. 2004;363:1277–1281
  23. Zhang Y, Woods R, Chaisson CE, et al. Alcohol consumption as a trigger of recurrent gout attacks. Am J Med. 2006;119:800.e13–800.e18
  24. Yu TF, Gutman AB. Study of the paradoxical effects of salicylate in low, intermediate and high dosage on the renal mechanisms for excretion of urate in man. J Clin Invest. 1959;38:1298–1315
  25. Yue TF, Dayton PG, Gutman AB. Mutual suppression of the uricosuric effects of sulfinpyrazone and salicylate: A study in interactions between drugs. J Clin Invest. 1963;42:1330–1339
  26. Caspi D, Lubart E, Graff E, Habot B, Yaron M, Segal R. The effect of mini-dose aspirin on renal function and uric acid handling in elderly patients. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43:103–108
  27. Kahn AM. Effect of diuretics on the renal handling of urate. Semin Nephrol. 1988;8:305–314
  28. Janssens HJ, van de Lisdonk EH, Janssen M, van den Hoogen HJ, Verbeek AL. Gout, not induced by diuretics? (A case-control study from primary care). Ann Rheum Dis. 2006;65:1080–1083
  29. Marcen R, Gallego N, Orofino L, et al. Influence of cyclosporin A (CyA) on renal handling of urate. Transpl Int. 1992;5(suppl 1):S81–S83
  30. Laine J, Holmberg C. Mechanisms of hyperuricemia in cyclosporine-treated renal transplanted children. Nephron. 1996;74:318–323
  31. Zurcher RM, Bock HA, Thiel G. Hyperuricaemia in cyclosporin-treated patients: GFR-related effect. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1996;11:153–158
  32. Kanbay M, Akcay A, Huddam B, et al. Influence of cyclosporine and tacrolimus on serum uric acid levels in stable kidney transplant recipients. Transplant Proc. 2005;37:3119–3120
  33. Abbott KC, Kimmel PL, Dharnidharka V, Oglesby RJ, Agodoa LY, Caillard S. New-onset gout after kidney transplantation: Incidence, risk factors and implications. Transplantation. 2005;80:1383–1391
  34. Teng GG, Nair R, Saag KG. Pathophysiology, clinical presentation and treatment of gout. Drugs. 2006;66:1547–1563
  35. Ho G, DeNuccio M. Gout and pseudogout in hospitalized patients. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:2787–2790
  36. Grahame R, Scott JT. Clinical survey of 354 patients with gout. Ann Rheum Dis. 1970;29:461–468
  37. Dawn B, Williams JK, Walker SE. Prepatellar bursitis: A unique presentation of tophaceous gout in an normouricemic patient. J Rheumatol. 1997;24:976–978
  38. Ifudu O, Tan CC, Dulin AL, Delano BG, Friedman EA. Gouty arthritis in end-stage renal disease: Clinical course and rarity of new cases. Am J Kidney Dis. 1994;23:347–351
  39. Pascual E, Batlle-Gualda E, Martinez A, Rosas J, Vela P. Synovial fluid analysis for diagnosis of intercritical gout. Ann Intern Med. 1999;131:756–759
  40. Gutman AB. The past four decades of progress in the knowledge of gout, with an assessment of the present status. Arthritis Rheum. 1973;16:431–445
  41. Shah K, Spear J, Nathanson LA, McCauley J, Edlow JA. Does the presence of crystal arthritis rule out septic arthritis?. J Emerg Med. 2007;32:23–26
  42. Logan JA, Morrison E, McGill PE. Serum uric acid in acute gout. Ann Rheum Dis. 1997;56:696–697
  43. Helmick CG, Felson DT, Lawrence RC, et al. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States: Part I. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;58:15–25
  44. Arromdee E, Michet CJ, Crowson CS, O'Fallon WM, Gabriel SE. Epidemiology of gout: Is the incidence rising?. J Rheumatol. 2002;29:2403–2406
  45. Lawrence RC, Felson DT, Helmick CG, et al. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States: Part II. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;58:26–35
  46. Mikuls TR, Farrar JT, Bilker WB, Fernandes S, Schumacher HR, Saag KG. Gout epidemiology: Results from the UK General Practice Research Database, 1990-1999. Ann Rheum Dis. 2005;64:267–272
  47. Darmawan J, Valkenburg HA, Muirden KD, Wigley RD. The epidemiology of gout and hyperuricemia in a rural population of Java. J Rheumatol. 1992;19:1595–1599
  48. Brauer GW, Prior IA. A prospective study of gout in New Zealand Maoris. Ann Rheum Dis. 1978;37:466–472
  49. Nan H, Qiao Q, Dong Y, et al. The prevalence of hyperuricemia in a population of the coastal city of Qingdao, China. J Rheumatol. 2006;33:1346–1350
  50. Ohno I, Ichida K, Okabe H, et al. Frequency of gouty arthritis in patients with end-stage renal disease in Japan. Intern Med. 2005;44:706–709
  51. Stamp L, Ha L, Searle M, O'Donnell J, Frampton C, Chapman P. Gout in renal transplant recipients. Nephrology (Carlton). 2006;11:367–371
  52. Altman RD, Honig S, Levin JM, Lightfoot RW. Ketoprofen versus indomethacin in patients with acute gouty arthritis: A multicenter, double blind comparative study. J Rheumatol. 1988;15:1422–1426
  53. Karachalios GN, Donas G. Sulindac in the treatment of acute gout arthritis. Int J Tissue React. 1982;4:297–299
  54. Shrestha M, Morgan DL, Moreden JM, Singh R, Nelson M, Hayes JE. Randomized double-blind comparison of the analgesic efficacy of intramuscular ketorolac and oral indomethacin in the treatment of acute gouty arthritis. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;26:682–686
  55. Sturge RA, Scott JT, Hamilton EB, et al. Multicentre trial of naproxen and phenylbutazone in acute gout. Ann Rheum Dis. 1977;36:80–82
  56. Schumacher HR, Boice JA, Daikh DI, et al. Randomised double blind trial of etoricoxib and indometacin in treatment of acute gouty arthritis. BMJ. 2002;324:1488–1492
  57. Willburger RE, Mysler E, Derbot J, et al. Lumiracoxib 400 mg once daily is comparable to indomethacin 50 mg three times daily for the treatment of acute flares of gout. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2007;46:1126–1132
  58. Ahern MJ, Reid C, Gordon TP, McCredie M, Brooks PM, Jones M. Does colchicine work? (The results of the first controlled study in acute gout). Aust N Z J Med. 1987;17:301–304
  59. Bonnel RA, Villalba ML, Karwoski CB, Beitz J. Deaths associated with inappropriate intravenous colchicine administration. J Emerg Med. 2002;22:385–387
  60. Lange U, Schumann C, Schmidt KL. Current aspects of colchicine therapy—Classical indications and new therapeutic uses. Eur J Med Res. 2001;6:150–160
  61. Groff GD, Franck WA, Raddatz DA. Systemic steroid therapy for acute gout: A clinical trial and review of the literature. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1990;19:329–336
  62. Man CY, Cheung IT, Cameron PA, Rainer TH. Comparison of oral prednisolone/paracetamol and oral indomethacin/paracetamol combination therapy in the treatment of acute goutlike arthritis: A double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;49:670–677
  63. Taylor CT, Brooks NC, Kelley KW. Corticotropin for acute management of gout. Ann Pharmacother. 2001;35:365–368
  64. Getting SJ, Christian HC, Flower RJ, Perretti M. Activation of melanocortin type 3 receptor as a molecular mechanism for adrenocorticotropic hormone efficacy in gouty arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46:2765–2775
  65. Axelrod D, Preston S. Comparison of parenteral adrenocorticotropic hormone with oral indomethacin in the treatment of acute gout. Arthritis Rheum. 1988;31:803–805
  66. Ritter J, Kerr LD, Valeriano-Marcet J, Spiera H. ACTH revisited: Effective treatment for acute crystal induced synovitis in patients with multiple medical problems. J Rheumatol. 1994;21:696–699
  67. Siegel LB, Alloway JA, Nashel DJ. Comparison of adrenocorticotropic hormone and triamcinolone acetonide in the treatment of acute gouty arthritis. J Rheumatol. 1994;21:1325–1327
  68. Emmerson BT. The management of gout. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:445–451
  69. Borstad GC, Bryant LR, Abel MP, Scroggie DA, Harris MD, Alloway JA. Colchicine for prophylaxis of acute flares when initiating allopurinol for chronic gouty arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2004;31:2429–2432
  70. Zhang W, Doherty M, Bardin T, et al. EULAR evidence based recommendations for gout (Part II: Management. Report of a task force of the EULAR Standing Committee for International Clinical Studies Including Therapeutics (ESCISIT)). Ann Rheum Dis. 2006;65:1312–1324
  71. Pacher P, Nivorozhkin A, Szabo C. Therapeutic effects of xanthine oxidase inhibitors: Renaissance half a century after the discovery of allopurinol. Pharmacol Rev. 2006;58:87–114
  72. Day RO, Miners JO, Birkett DJ, et al. Allopurinol dosage selection: Relationships between dose and plasma oxipurinol and urate concentrations and urinary urate excretion. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1988;26:423–428
  73. Perez-Ruiz F, Alonso-Ruiz A, Calabozo M, Herrero-Beites A, Garcia-Erauskin G, Ruiz-Lucea E. Efficacy of allopurinol and benzbromarone for the control of hyperuricaemia (A pathogenic approach to the treatment of primary chronic gout). Ann Rheum Dis. 1998;57:545–549
  74. Riedel AA, Nelson M, Joseph-Ridge N, Wallace K, MacDonald P, Becker M. Compliance with allopurinol therapy among managed care enrollees with gout: A retrospective analysis of administrative claims. J Rheumatol. 2004;31:1575–1581
  75. Fam AG, Dunne SM, Iazzetta J, Paton TW. Efficacy and safety of desensitization to allopurinol following cutaneous reactions. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;44:231–238
  76. Hande KR, Noone RM, Stone WJ. Severe allopurinol toxicity (Description and guidelines for prevention in patients with renal insufficiency). Am J Med. 1984;76:47–56
  77. Emmerson BT, Hazelton RA, Frazer IH. Some adverse reactions to allopurinol may be mediated by lymphocyte reactivity to oxypurinol. Arthritis Rheum. 1988;31:436–440
  78. Hung SI, Chung WH, Liou LB, et al. HLA-B*5801 allele as a genetic marker for severe cutaneous adverse reactions caused by allopurinol. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102:4134–4139
  79. Lupton GP, Odom RB. The allopurinol hypersensitivity syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1979;1:365–374
  80. Singer JZ, Wallace SL. The allopurinol hypersensitivity syndrome (Unnecessary morbidity and mortality). Arthritis Rheum. 1986;29:82–87
  81. Young JL, Boswell RB, Nies AS. Severe allopurinol hypersensitivity (Association with thiazides and prior renal compromise). Arch Intern Med. 1974;134:553–558
  82. Fox IH, Kelley WN. Management of gout. JAMA. 1979;242:361–364
  83. Hahn P, Edwards N. Management of hyperuricemia. In:  Koopman WJ,  Moreland LW editor. Arthritis and Allied Conditions: A Textbook of Rheumatology. (ed 15th). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005;p. 2341–2355
  84. Conaghan PG, Day RO. Risks and benefits of drugs used in the management and prevention of gout. Drug Saf. 1994;11:252–258
  85. Izzedine H, Brocheriou I, Becart J, Deray G. Probenecid-induced membranous nephropathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2007;22:2405–2406
  86. Becker MA, Kisicki J, Khosravan R, et al. Febuxostat (TMX-67), a novel, non-purine, selective inhibitor of xanthine oxidase, is safe and decreases serum urate in healthy volunteers. Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids. 2004;23:1111–1116
  87. Mayer MD, Khosravan R, Vernillet L, Wu JT, Joseph-Ridge N, Mulford DJ. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of febuxostat, a new non-purine selective inhibitor of xanthine oxidase in subjects with renal impairment. Am J Ther. 2005;12:22–34
  88. Becker MA, Schumacher HR, Wortmann RL, et al. Febuxostat compared with allopurinol in patients with hyperuricemia and gout. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:2450–2461
  89. Bruce SP. Febuxostat: A selective xanthine oxidase inhibitor for the treatment of hyperuricemia and gout. Ann Pharmacother. 2006;40:2187–2194
  90. Coiffier B, Mounier N, Bologna S, et al. Efficacy and safety of rasburicase (recombinant urate oxidase) for the prevention and treatment of hyperuricemia during induction chemotherapy of aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: Results of the GRAAL1 (Groupe d'Etude des Lymphomes de l'Adulte Trial on Rasburicase Activity in Adult Lymphoma) study. J Clin Oncol. 2003;21:4402–4406
  91. Pui CH, Relling MV, Lascombes F, et al. Urate oxidase in prevention and treatment of hyperuricemia associated with lymphoid malignancies. Leukemia. 1997;11:1813–1816
  92. Pui CH, Mahmoud HH, Wiley JM, et al. Recombinant urate oxidase for the prophylaxis or treatment of hyperuricemia in patients with leukemia or lymphoma. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:697–704
  93. Vogt B. Urate oxidase (rasburicase) for treatment of severe tophaceous gout. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2005;20:431–433
  94. Bomalaski JS, Holtsberg FW, Ensor CM, Clark MA. Uricase formulated with polyethylene glycol (uricase-PEG 20): Biochemical rationale and preclinical studies. J Rheumatol. 2002;29:1942–1949
  95. Ganson NJ, Kelly SJ, Scarlett E, Sundy JS, Hershfield MS. Control of hyperuricemia in subjects with refractory gout, and induction of antibody against poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), in a phase I trial of subcutaneous PEGylated urate oxidase. Arthritis Res Ther. 2006;8:R12
  96. Sundy JS, Ganson NJ, Kelly SJ, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of intravenous PEGylated recombinant mammalian urate oxidase in patients with refractory gout. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:1021–1028
  97. Sherman MR, Saifer MG, Perez-Ruiz F. PEG-uricase in the management of treatment-resistant gout and hyperuricemia. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2008;60:59–68
  98. Modern FW, Meister L. The kidney of gout, a clinical entity. Med Clin North Am. 1952;21:941–951
  99. Talbott JH, Terplan KL. The kidney in gout. Medicine (Baltimore). 1960;39:405–467
  100. Kang DH, Nakagawa T. Uric acid and chronic renal disease: Possible implication of hyperuricemia on progression of renal disease. Semin Nephrol. 2005;25:43–49
  101. Iseki K, Ikemiya Y, Inoue T, Iseki C, Kinjo K, Takishita S. Significance of hyperuricemia as a risk factor for developing ESRD in a screened cohort. Am J Kidney Dis. 2004;44:642–650
  102. Iseki K, Oshiro S, Tozawa M, Iseki C, Ikemiya Y, Takishita S. Significance of hyperuricemia on the early detection of renal failure in a cohort of screened subjects. Hypertens Res. 2001;24:691–697
  103. Nagahama K, Inoue T, Iseki K, et al. Hyperuricemia as a predictor of hypertension in a screened cohort in Okinawa, Japan. Hypertens Res. 2004;27:835–841
  104. Tomita M, Mizuno S, Yamanaka H, et al. Does hyperuricemia affect mortality? (A prospective cohort study of Japanese male workers). J Epidemiol. 2000;10:403–409
  105. Ohno I, Hosoya T, Gomi H, Ichida K, Okabe H, Hikita M. Serum uric acid and renal prognosis in patients with IgA nephropathy. Nephron. 2001;87:333–339
  106. Syrjanen J, Mustonen J, Pasternack A. Hypertriglyceridaemia and hyperuricaemia are risk factors for progression of IgA nephropathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2000;15:34–42
  107. Khosla UM, Zharikov S, Finch JL, et al. Hyperuricemia induces endothelial dysfunction. Kidney Int. 2005;67:1739–1742
  108. Mazzali M, Hughes J, Kim YG, et al. Elevated uric acid increases blood pressure in the rat by a novel crystal-independent mechanism. Hypertension. 2001;38:1101–1106
  109. Mazzali M, Kanellis J, Han L, et al. Hyperuricemia induces a primary renal arteriolopathy in rats by a blood pressure-independent mechanism. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2002;282:F991–F997
  110. Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Avila-Casado C, et al. Mild hyperuricemia induces glomerular hypertension in normal rats. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2002;283:F1105–F1110
  111. Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Soto V, et al. Treatment with the xanthine oxidase inhibitor febuxostat lowers uric acid and alleviates systemic and glomerular hypertension in experimental hyperuricaemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008;23:1179–1185
  112. Sanchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Bautista-Garcia P, et al. Effects of febuxostat on metabolic and renal alterations in rats with fructose-induced metabolic syndrome. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2008;294:F710–F718
  113. Siu YP, Leung KT, Tong MK, Kwan TH. Use of allopurinol in slowing the progression of renal disease through its ability to lower serum uric acid level. Am J Kidney Dis. 2006;47:51–59
  114. Beck LH. Requiem for gouty nephropathy. Kidney Int. 1986;30:280–287
  115. Tarng DC, Lin HY, Shyong ML, Wang JS, Yang WC, Huang TP. Renal function in gout patients. Am J Nephrol. 1995;15:31–37
  116. Berger L, Yu TF. Renal function in gout (IV. An analysis of 524 gouty subjects including long-term follow-up studies). Am J Med. 1975;59:605–613
  117. Fessel WJ. Renal outcomes of gout and hyperuricemia. Am J Med. 1979;67:74–82
  118. Anker SD, Doehner W, Rauchhaus M, et al. Uric acid and survival in chronic heart failure: Validation and application in metabolic, functional, and hemodynamic staging. Circulation. 2003;107:1991–1997
  119. Boyko EJ, de Courten M, Zimmet PZ, Chitson P, Tuomilehto J, Alberti KG. Features of the metabolic syndrome predict higher risk of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance: A prospective study in Mauritius. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:1242–1248
  120. Denzer C, Muche R, Mayer H, Heinze E, Debatin KM, Wabitsch M. Serum uric acid levels in obese children and adolescents: Linkage to testosterone levels and pre-metabolic syndrome. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2003;16:1225–1232
  121. Feig DI, Johnson RJ. Hyperuricemia in childhood primary hypertension. Hypertension. 2003;42:247–252
  122. Gavin AR, Struthers AD. Hyperuricemia and adverse outcomes in cardiovascular disease: Potential for therapeutic intervention. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2003;3:309–314
  123. Nakanishi N, Tatara K, Nakamura K, Suzuki K. Risk factors for the incidence of hyperuricaemia: A 6-year longitudinal study of middle-aged Japanese men. Int J Epidemiol. 1999;28:888–893
  124. Terkeltaub RA. Clinical practice (Gout). N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1647–1655
  125. Anderson-Haag T, Patel B. Safety of colchicine in dialysis patients. Semin Dial. 2003;16:412–413
  126. Dalbeth N, Stamp L. Allopurinol dosing in renal impairment: Walking the tightrope between adequate urate lowering and adverse events. Semin Dial. 2007;20:391–395
  127. Dalbeth N, Kumar S, Stamp L, Gow P. Dose adjustment of allopurinol according to creatinine clearance does not provide adequate control of hyperuricemia in patients with gout. J Rheumatol. 2006;33:1646–1650
  128. De Angelis S, Noce A, Di Renzo L, et al. Is rasburicase an effective alternative to allopurinol for management of hyperuricemia in renal failure patients? (A double blind-randomized study). Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2007;11:179–184
  129. Lin HY, Rocher LL, McQuillan MA, Schmaltz S, Palella TD, Fox IH. Cyclosporine-induced hyperuricemia and gout. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:287–292
  130. Noordzij TC, Leunissen KM, Van Hooff JP. Renal handling of urate and the incidence of gouty arthritis during cyclosporine and diuretic use. Transplantation. 1991;52:64–67
  131. Gores PF, Fryd DS, Sutherland DE, Najarian JS, Simmons RL. Hyperuricemia after renal transplantation. Am J Surg. 1988;156:397–400
  132. West C, Carpenter BJ, Hakala TR. The incidence of gout in renal transplant recipients. Am J Kidney Dis. 1987;10:369–372
  133. Jacobs F, Mamzer-Bruneel MF, Skhiri H, Thervet E, Legendre C, Kreis H. Safety of the mycophenolate mofetil-allopurinol combination in kidney transplant recipients with gout. Transplantation. 1997;64:1087–1088
  134. Navascues RA, Gomez E, Rodriguez M, Laures AS, Baltar J, Grande JA. Safety of the allopurinol-mycophenolate mofetil combination in the treatment of hyperuricemia of kidney transplant recipients. Nephron. 2002;91:173–174
  135. Rana SS, Giuliani MJ, Oddis CV, Lacomis D. Acute onset of colchicine myoneuropathy in cardiac transplant recipients: Case studies of three patients. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 1997;99:266–270

PII: S0272-6386(08)01231-6

doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2008.07.035

American Journal of Kidney Diseases
Volume 52, Issue 5 , Pages 994-1009 , November 2008

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution