American Journal of Kidney Diseases
Volume 53, Issue 3, Supplement 3 , Pages S17-S26 , March 2009

Current Status and Future Perspectives for CKD Testing

  • Lesley A. Stevens, MD, MS

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress correspondence to Lesley A. Stevens, MD, MS, Division of Nephrology, Tufts Medical Center, 800 Washington St, Box 391, Boston, MA 02111
  • ,
  • Andrew S. Levey, MD

References 

  1. Kinchen K, Sadler J, Fink N, et al. The timing of specialist evaluation in chronic kidney disease and mortality. Ann Intern Med. 2002;137:479–483
  2. National Kidney Foundation. K/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for Chronic Kidney Disease: Evaluation, classification, and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002;39(suppl 1):S1–S266
  3. Coresh J, Byrd-Holt D, Astor B, et al. Chronic kidney disease awareness, prevalence, and trends among U.S. adults, 1999 to 2000. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:180–188
  4. National Kidney Foundation. Kidney Early Evaluation Program (KEEP) annual data report 2006. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007;49(suppl 3):S1–S130
  5. Levey AS, Atkins R, Coresh J, et al. Chronic kidney disease as a global public health problem: Approaches and initiatives—A position statement from Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes. Kidney Int. 2007;72:247–259
  6. Schoolwerth A, Engelgau M, Hostetter T, et al. Chronic kidney disease: A public health problem that needs a public health action plan. Prev Chronic Dis. 2006;3(abstr):57A
  7. Levey AS, Eckardt KU, Tsukamoto Y, et al. Definition and classification of chronic kidney disease: A position statement from Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). Kidney Int. 2005;67:2089–2100
  8. Vassalotti JA, Stevens LA, Levey AS. Testing for chronic kidney disease: A position statement from the National Kidney Foundation. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007;50:169–180
  9. Warren J, Gearin G, Laffel L, Krolewski A. Effect of duration of type I diabetes on the prevalence of stages of diabetic nephropathy defined by urinary albumin/creatinine ratio. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1996;7:930–937
  10. Jacobs DR, Murtaugh MA, Steffes M, Yu X, Roseman J, Goetz FC. Gender- and race-specific determination of albumin excretion rate using albumin-to-creatinine ratio in single, untimed urine specimens: The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;155:1114–1119
  11. Jafar TH, Chaturvedi N, Hatcher J, Levey AS. Use of albumin creatinine ratio and urine albumin concentration as a screening test for albuminuria in an Indo-Asian population. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2007;22:2194–2200
  12. Jafar TH, Schmid CH, Levey AS. Serum creatinine as marker of kidney function in South Asians: A study of reduced GFR in adults in Pakistan. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:1413–1419
  13. Derhaschnig U, Kittler H, Woisetschläger C, Bur A, Herkner H, Hirschl MM. Microalbumin measurement alone or calculation of the albumin/creatinine ratio for the screening of hypertension patients?. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2002;17:81–85
  14. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(supp l):S4–S41
  15. Molitch ME, DeFronzo RA, Franz MJ, et al. Nephropathy in diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(supp l):S79–S83
  16. Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, Greene T, Rogers N, Roth D. A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: A new prediction equation. Ann Intern Med. 1999;130:461–470
  17. Levey AS, Greene T, Kusek J, Beck G. A simplified equation to predict glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2000;11(abstr):155A
  18. Levey AS, Coresh J, Greene T, et al. Using standardized serum creatinine values in the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study equation for estimating glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med. 2006;145:247–254
  19. Coresh J, Stevens L, Greene T, et al. Serum cystatin C GFR estimation equation: Pooled analysis of 3134 individuals. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17(abstr):189A
  20. Stevens LA, Coresh J, Greene T, Levey AS. Assessing kidney function—Measured and estimated glomerular filtration rate. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:2473–2483
  21. Miller W, Myers G, Ashwood E, et al. Creatinine measurement: State of the art in accuracy and interlaboratory harmonization. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2005;129:297–304
  22. Levey A, Coresh J, Greene T, et al. Expressing the MDRD study equation for estimating GFR with standardized serum creatinine values. Clin Chem. 2007;53:766–772
  23. Coresh J, Stevens LA. Kidney function estimating equations: Where do we stand?. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2006;15:276–284
  24. Ibrahim H, Mondress M, Tello A, Fan Y, Koopmeiners J, Thomas W. An alternative formula to the Cockcroft-Gault and the Modification of Diet in Renal Diseases formulas in predicting GFR in individuals with type 1 diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:1051–1060
  25. Poggio E, Wang X, Greene T, Van Lente F, Hall P. Performance of the MDRD and Cockcroft-Gault equations in the estimation of glomerular filtration rate in health and in chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:459–466
  26. Rule A, Larson T, Bergstralh E, Slezak J, Jacobsen S, Cosio F. Using serum creatinine to estimate glomerular filtration rate: Accuracy in good health and in chronic kidney disease. Ann Intern Med. 2004;141:929–937
  27. Levey AS, Beck GJ, Caggiula AW, et al. Trends toward a beneficial effect of a low protein diet during additional follow-up in the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1994;5(abstr):336A
  28. Wright JT, Bakris G, Greene T, et al. Effect of blood pressure lowering and antihypertensive drug class on progression of hypertensive kidney disease: Results from the AASK Trial. JAMA. 2002;288:2421–2431
  29. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Research Group. Retinopathy and nephropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes four years after a trial of intensive therapy. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:381–389
  30. Nelson R, Bennett P, Beck G, et al. Development and progression of renal disease in Pima Indians with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (Diabetic Renal Disease Study Group). N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1636–1642
  31. Lewis EJ, Kunsicker LG, Bain RP, Rohde RD Collaborative Study Group. The effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition on diabetic nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:1456–1462
  32. Feldman HI, Appel LJ, Chertow GM, et al. The Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort (CRIC) Study: Design and methods. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003;14(suppl 2):S148–S153
  33. Stevens LA, Manzi J, Levey AS, et al. Impact of creatinine calibration on performance of GFR estimating equations in a pooled individual patient database. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007;50:21–35
  34. Clase CM, Garg AX, Kiberd BA. Reply from the authors: Estimating the prevalence of low glomerular filtration rate requires attention to the creatinine calibration assay. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2812–2816
  35. Clase CM, Garg AX, Kiberd BA. Prevalence of low glomerular filtration rate in nondiabetic Americans: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:1338–1349
  36. Coresh J, Eknoyan G, Levey AS. Estimating the prevalence of low glomerular filtration rate requires attention to the creatinine assay calibration. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2811–2812discussion, 2812-2816
  37. Stevens LA, Coresh J, Deysher AE, et al. Evaluation of the MDRD Study equation in a large diverse population. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007;18:2749–2757
  38. Ma Y-C, Zuo L, Chen J-H, et al. Modified glomerular filtration rate estimating equation for Chinese patients with chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17:2937–2944
  39. Imai E, Horio M, Nitta K, et al. Estimation of glomerular filtration rate by the MDRD Study equation modified for Japanese patients with chronic kidney disease. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2007;11:41–50
  40. Knight E, Verhave J, Spiegelman D, et al. Factors influencing serum cystatin C levels other than renal function and the impact on renal function measurement. Kidney Int. 2004;65:1416–1421
  41. Stevens LA, Schmid CH, Greene T, et al. Factors other than glomerular filtration rate affect serum cystatin C levels. Kidney Int. 31 Dec 2008;[Epub ahead of print]
  42. Flondin M, Hansson L, Larsson A. Variations in assay protocol for the Dako cystatin C method may change patient results by 50% without changing the results for controls. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2006;44:1481–1485
  43. Madero M, Sarnak MJ, Stevens LA. Serum cystatin C as a marker of glomerular filtration rate. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2006;15:610–616
  44. Shlipak MG, Sarnak MJ, Katz R, et al. Cystatin C and the risk of death and cardiovascular events among elderly persons. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:2049–2060
  45. Sarnak MJ, Katz R, Stehman-Breen CO, et al. Cystatin C concentration as a risk factor for heart failure in older adults. Ann Intern Med. 2005;142:497–505
  46. Singh D, Whooley MA, Ix JH, Ali S, Shlipak MG. Association of cystatin C and estimated GFR with inflammatory biomarkers: The Heart and Soul Study. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2007;22:1087–1092
  47. McManus D, Shlipak M, Ix JH, Ali S, Whooley MA. Association of cystatin C with poor exercise capacity and heart rate recovery: Data from the Heart and Soul Study. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007;49:365–372
  48. Ix JH, Shlipak MG, Chertow GM, Whooley MA. Association of cystatin C with mortality, cardiovascular events, and incident heart failure among persons with coronary heart disease: Data from the Heart and Soul Study. Circulation. 2007;115:173–179
  49. Stevens LA, Levey AS. Chronic kidney disease in the elderly—How to assess risk?. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:2122–2124
  50. Levey AS, Stevens LA, Coresh J. Conceptual model of CKD: Applications and implications. Am J Kidney Dis. 2009;53(suppl 3):S4–S16
  51. Schmid CH. A new equation to estimate GFR from serum creatinine: Improved accuracy and updated estimates of prevalence of chronic kidney disease in the United States. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;19(abstr):36A
  52. Boulware L, Jaar B, Tarver-Carr M, Bruncati F, Powe N. Screening for proteinuria in US adults: A cost-effectiveness analysis. JAMA. 2003;290:3101–3114
  53. Myers G, Miller W, Coresh J, et al. Recommendations for improving serum creatinine measurement: A report from the laboratory working group of the National Kidney Disease Education Program. Clin Chem. 2006;52:5–18
  54. Harwell T, Nelson R, Little R, McDowall J, Helgerson S, Gohdes D. Testing for microalbuminuria in 2002: Barriers to implementing current guidelines. Am J Kidney Dis. 2003;42:245–248

PII: S0272-6386(08)01717-4

doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2008.07.047

American Journal of Kidney Diseases
Volume 53, Issue 3, Supplement 3 , Pages S17-S26 , March 2009