American Journal of Kidney Diseases
Volume 54, Issue 6 , Pages 1145-1157 , December 2009

Organ Trafficking: Global Solutions for a Global Problem

  • Tazeen H. Jafar, MD, MPH

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress correspondence to Tazeen H. Jafar, MD, MPH, Section of Nephrology, Departments of Medicine and Community Health Sciences, Aga Khan University, 3500 Stadium Rd, Karachi 74800, Pakistan

References 

  1. Gentleman A. Kidney thefts shocks India. The New York Times. January 30, 2008;http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/30/world/asia/30kidney.html. Accessed July 9, 2009.
  2. Barsoum RS. Trends in unrelated-donor kidney transplantation in the developing world. Pediatr Nephrol. 2008;23:1925–1929
  3. McDonald M. Beijing investigates transplants for tourists. The New York Times. February 17, 2009;http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/18/world/asia/18organs.html?_r=1&partner=rss&emc=rss. Accessed July 9, 2009
  4. Rose DA. Larry's Kidney. 1st ed.. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers; 2008;
  5. Interlandi J. Not just urban legend. Newsweek. January 10, 2009;http://www.newsweek.com/id/178873. Accessed July 9, 2009
  6. Organ transplants (The gap between supply and demand). The Economist. October 9, 2008;http://www.economist.com/opinion/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12380981. Accessed September 30, 2009
  7. Levey AS, Atkins R, Coresh J, et al. Chronic kidney disease as a global public health problem: approaches and initiatives—a position statement from Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes. Kidney Int. 2007;72(3):247–259
  8. Meguid El Nahas A, Bello AK. Chronic kidney disease: the global challenge. Lancet. 2005;365(9456):331–340
  9. Coresh J, Selvin E, Stevens LA, et al. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in the United States. JAMA. 2007;298(17):2038–2047
  10. Jafar TH. The growing burden of chronic kidney disease in Pakistan. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(10):995–997
  11. Gilbertson DT, Liu J, Xue JL, et al. Projecting the number of patients with end-stage renal disease in the United States to the year 2015. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16(12):3736–3741
  12. US Renal Data System. USRDS 2006 Annual Data Report. Bethesda, MD: The National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2006;
  13. Foley RN, Collins AJ. End-stage renal disease in the United States: an update from the United States Renal Data System. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007;18(10):2644–2648
  14. Wolfe RA, Ashby VB, Milford EL, et al. Comparison of mortality in all patients on dialysis, patients on dialysis awaiting transplantation, and recipients of a first cadaveric transplant. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(23):1725–1730
  15. Meier-Kriesche HU, Ojo AO, Port FK, Arndorfer JA, Cibrik DM, Kaplan B. Survival improvement among patients with end-stage renal disease: trends over time for transplant recipients and wait-listed patients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2001;12(6):1293–1296
  16. Daar AS. The case for a regulated system of living kidney sales. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol. 2006;2(11):600–601
  17. Remuzzi G, Cravedi P, Perna A, et al. Long-term outcome of renal transplantation from older donors. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(4):343–352
  18. US Renal Data System. USRDS 2008 Annual Data Report. Bethesda, MD: The National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2008;
  19. Meier-Kriesche HU, Port FK, Ojo AO, et al. Effect of waiting time on renal transplant outcome. Kidney Int. 2000;58(3):1311–1317
  20. Transplants save lives. NHS Blood and Transplant Web site www.uktransplant.org.uk/ukt/statistics/statistics.jspAccessed July 9, 2009
  21. Dobson R. Number of UK patients awaiting a transplant reaches record high. BMJ. 2007;334(7600):920–921
  22. Lawson A. Presumed consent for organ donation in the United Kingdom. J Intensive Care Soc. 2008;9(2):116–117
  23. Kasiske BL, Snyder J, Matas A, Collins A. The impact of transplantation on survival with kidney failure. Clin Transpl. 2000;135–143
  24. Sadler AM, Sadler BL, Stason EB. The uniform anatomical gift act (A model for reform). JAMA. 1968;206(11):2505–2506
  25. National Organ Transplant Act (NOTA) of 1984, publication 1. Pub. L. No. 98-507, §301.
  26. Verheijde JL, Rady MY, McGregor JL. The United States Revised Uniform Anatomical Gift Act (2006): new challenges to balancing patient rights and physician responsibilities. Philos Ethics Humanit Med. 2007;2:19
  27. Uniform Anatomical Gift Act (UAGA). http://www.anatomicalgiftact.orgAccessed July 14, 2009
  28. Ball RM. Social Security Amendments of 1972: summary and legislative history. In-depth research: legislative history, social security online. http://www.ssa.gov/history/1972amend.htmlAccessed July 15, 2009
  29. Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1986, 42 US C. §1320 b-8(a) (1) (A).
  30. Federal Patient Self-Determination Act of 1991, 42 US C §1395 cc, 42 US C, 1396a.
  31. Organ Donor Leave Act of 1999. Pub. L. No. 106-56, 113 Stat. 407.
  32. Organ Donation and Recovery Improvement Act of 2004. Pub. L. No. 108 -216, 118 Stat. 584.
  33. National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws. Uniform Anatomical Gift Act. http://www.anatomicalgiftact.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabindex=1&tabid=63Accessed July 15, 2009
  34. Charlie W. Norwood Living Organ Donation Act of 2007. Pub. L. No: 110-144, 121 Stat. 1813.
  35. Stephanie Tubbs Jones Gift of Life Medal Act of 2008. Pub. L. No: 110-413, 122 Stat. 4338.
  36. Epstein M, Danovitch G. Is altruistic-directed living unrelated organ donation a legal fiction?. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2009;24(2):357–360
  37. Hiraga S, Mori T, Asaura Y. Current arrangement and activity of organ transplantation after new organ transplant legislation in Japan. Transplant Proc. 2000;32(1):86–89
  38. World Health Organization. Guiding principles on human organ transplantation. Lancet. 1991;337(8755):1470–1471
  39. World Health Organization. Guiding principles on human organ transplantation. http://www.who.int/ethics/topics/transplantation_guiding_principles/en/index1.htmlAccessed July 11, 2009
  40. Legal and illegal organ donation. Lancet. 2007;369(9577):1901
  41. Scheper-Hughes N. Keeping an eye on the global traffic in human organs. Lancet. 2003;361(9369):1645–1648
  42. Wright K. The body bazaar: blood, kidneys, eggs, sperm—name a body part, there's a price on it. Think of it as a commodities market for the twenty-first century. Discover. 1998;19(10):114–118120
  43. Rai MA, Afzal O. Organs in the bazaar: the end of the beginning?. Politics Life Sci. 2007;26(1):10–11
  44. Sarig M. Israeli transplant surgeon is arrested for suspected organ trafficking. [letter] BMJ. 2007;334(7601):973
  45. World Development Indicators 2009. Washington DC: The World Bank; 2009;
  46. Moazam F, Zaman RM, Jafarey AM. Conversations with kidney vendors in Pakistan: an ethnographic study. Hastings Cent Rep. 2009;39(3):29–44
  47. Quraishi A. Pakistan's lucrative kidney trade. CNN. August 4, 2004 http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/asiapcf/08/04/pakistan.organ/index.htmlAccessed July 9, 2009
  48. Donahue KT, vanOstenberg P. Joint Commission international accreditation: relationship to four models of evaluation. Int J Qual Health Care. 2000;12(3):243–246
  49. Rizvi AH, Naqvi AS, Zafar NM, Ahmed E. Regulated compensated donation in Pakistan and Iran. Curr Opin Organ Transplant. 2009;14(2):124–128
  50. Inston NG, Gill D, Al-Hakim A, Ready AR. Living paid organ transplantation results in unacceptably high recipient morbidity and mortality. Transplant Proc. 2005;37(2):560–562
  51. Ivanovski N, Stojkovski L, Cakalaroski K, Masin G, Djikova S, Polenakovic M. Renal transplantation from paid, unrelated donors in India—it is not only unethical, it is also medically unsafe. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1997;12(9):2028–2029
  52. Gill J, Madhira BR, Gjertson D, et al. Transplant tourism in the United States: a single-center experience. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;3(6):1820–1828
  53. Friedlaender MM. The role of commercial non-related living kidney transplants. J Nephrol. 2003;16(suppl 7):S10–S15
  54. Goyal M, Mehta RL, Schneiderman LJ, Sehgal AR. Economic and health consequences of selling a kidney in India. JAMA. 2002;288(13):1589–1593
  55. Clemens KK, Thiessen-Philbrook H, Parikh CR, et al. Psychosocial health of living kidney donors: a systematic review. Am J Transplant. 2006;6(12):2965–2977
  56. Halbfinger DM. 44 charged by U.S. in New Jersey corruption sweep. The New York Times. July 23, 2009;http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/24/nyregion/24jersey.html?_r=1&sq=44%20in%20NJ%20corruption%20case&st=cse&scp=1&pagewanted=all. Accessed July 24, 2009
  57. Ghods AJ, Savaj S. Iranian model of paid and regulated living-unrelated kidney donation. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;1(6):1136–1145
  58. Jha V, Chugh KS. The case against a regulated system of living kidney sales. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol. 2006;2(9):466–467
  59. Boudville N, Prasad GV, Knoll G, et al. Meta-analysis: risk for hypertension in living kidney donors. Ann Intern Med. 2006;145(3):185–196
  60. The effect of treatment on mortality in “mild” hypertension: results of the hypertension detection and follow-up program. N Engl J Med. 1982;307(16):976–980
  61. Bakdash T, Scheper-Hughes N. Is it ethical for patients with renal disease to purchase kidneys from the world's poor?. PLoS Med. 2006;3(10):e349
  62. In:  Satel S editors. When Altruism Isn't Enough (The Case for Compensating Kidney Donors). Washington DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research; 2008;
  63. Daar AS. Paid organ procurement: pragmatic and ethical viewpoints. Transplant Proc. 2004;36(7):1876–1877
  64. Siegel-Itzkovich J. Israel considers paying people for donating a kidney. [letter] BMJ. 2003;326(7381):126
  65. Jotkowitz A. Notes on the new Israeli organ donation law-2008. Transplant Proc. 2008;40(10):3297–3298
  66. Matas AJ, Schnitzler M. Payment for living donor (vendor) kidneys: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Am J Transplant. 2004;4(2):216–221
  67. Israni AK, Halpern SD, Zink S, Sidhwani SA, Caplan A. Incentive models to increase living kidney donation: encouraging without coercing. Am J Transplant. 2005;5(1):15–20
  68. Oz MC, Kherani AR, Rowe A, et al. How to improve organ donation: results of the ISHLT/FACT poll. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2003;22(4):389–410
  69. Kranenburg L, Schram A, Zuidema W, et al. Public survey of financial incentives for kidney donation. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008;23(3):1039–1042
  70. Vlaicu S, Klarenbach S, Yang RC, Dempster T, Garg AX. Current Canadian initiatives to reimburse live organ donors for their non-medical expenses. Can J Public Health. 2007;98(6):481–483
  71. World Health Organization. Resolution on human organ and tissue transplantation. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2004;(WHA 57.18). http://www.who.int/ethics/en/A57_R18-en.pdf. Accessed October 1, 2009
  72. Robertson N. Man must choose between selling kidney or child. CNN. July 16, 2009 http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/07/16/pakistan.organ.selling/index.htmlAccessed July 16, 2009
  73. Watts J. China introduces new rules to deter human organ trade. Lancet. 2007;369(9577):1917–1918
  74. Muraleedharan VR, Jan S, Ram Prasad S. The trade in human organs in Tamil Nadu: the anatomy of regulatory failure. Health Econ Policy Law. 2006;1(pt 1):41–57
  75. Young E. Laws fail to stop India's organ trade. [letter] New Sci. 2005;188(2522):20
  76. Merion RM, Barnes AD, Lin M, et al. Transplants in foreign countries among patients removed from the US transplant waiting list. Am J Transplant. 2008;8(4 pt 2):988–996
  77. Shimazono Y. The state of the international organ trade: a provisional picture based on integration of available information. Bull World Health Organ. 2007;85(12):955–962
  78. Turner L. Commercial organ transplantation in the Philippines. Camb Q Healthc Ethics. 2009;18(2):192–196
  79. Bramstedt KA, Xu J. Checklist: passport, plane ticket, organ transplant. Am J Transplant. 2007;7(7):1698–1701
  80. Onaca N. Will transplant tourism erode the surgical skills of transplant surgeons in Israel?. [letter] Am J Transplant. 2008;8(9):1963;author reply, 1964
  81. The Declaration of Istanbul on Organ Trafficking and Transplant Tourism. Kidney Int. 2008;74(7):854–859
  82. Delmonico FL. The hazards of transplant tourism. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;4(2):249–250
  83. Punch JD, Hayes DH, LaPorte FB, McBride V, Seely MS. Organ donation and utilization in the United States, 1996-2005. Am J Transplant. 2007;7(5 pt 2):1327–1338
  84. Mossialos E, Costa-Font J, Rudisill C. Does organ donation legislation affect individuals' willingness to donate their own or their relative's organs? (Evidence from European Union survey data). BMC Health Serv Res. 2008;8:48
  85. Kwek TK, Lew TW, Tan HL, Kong S. The transplantable organ shortage in Singapore: has implementation of presumed consent to organ donation made a difference?. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 2009;38(4):346–348
  86. Abadie A, Gay S. The impact of presumed consent legislation on cadaveric organ donation: a cross-country study. J Health Econ. 2006;25(4):599–620
  87. Kuehn BM. Kidney donor exchange program planned. [letter] JAMA. 2005;293(14):1716
  88. Curfman GD, Morrissey S, Drazen JM. Physicians and execution. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(4):403–404
  89. Shaheen FA, Souqiyyeh MZ. How to improve organ donation in the MESOT countries. Ann Transplant. 2004;9(1):19–21
  90. Delmonico FL. What is the system failure?. Kidney Int. 2006;69(6):954–955
  91. Jafar TH, Stark PC, Schmid CH, et al. Progression of chronic kidney disease: the role of blood pressure control, proteinuria, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition: a patient-level meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139(4):244–252
  92. Brown WW, Peters RM, Ohmit SE, et al. Early detection of kidney disease in community settings: the Kidney Early Evaluation Program (KEEP). Am J Kidney Dis. 2003;42(1):22–35

 Originally published online as doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2009.08.014 on November 2, 2009.

PII: S0272-6386(09)01177-9

doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2009.08.014

American Journal of Kidney Diseases
Volume 54, Issue 6 , Pages 1145-1157 , December 2009