American Journal of Kidney Diseases
Volume 55, Issue 5 , Pages 941-956 , May 2010

Management of Osteoporosis in CKD Stages 3 to 5

  • Patricia L. Gordon, RN, PhD
  • ,
  • Lynda A. Frassetto, MD

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress correspondence to Lynda A. Frassetto, MD, University of California San Francisco, Campus Box 0126, 505 Parnassus Ave, Rm M1202, San Francisco, CA 94143

Received 10 October 2009 ,Accepted 8 February 2010.

References 

  1. Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH, et al. A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150(9):604–612
  2. Maggi S, Kelsey JL, Litvak J, Heyse SP. Incidence of hip fractures in the elderly: a cross-national analysis. Osteoporos Int. 1991;1(4):232–241
  3. Facchini FS, Hua N, Abbasi F, Reaven GM. Insulin resistance as a predictor of age-related diseases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(8):3574–3578
  4. Weinberger MH, Fineberg NS. Sodium and volume sensitivity of blood pressure: age and pressure change over time. Hypertension. 1991;18(1):67–71
  5. Anderson S, Halter JB, Hazzard WR, et al. Prediction, progression, and outcomes of chronic kidney disease in older adults. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;20(6):1199–1209
  6. Saller A, Maggi S, Romanato G, Tonin P, Crepaldi G. Diabetes and osteoporosis. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2008;20(4):280–289
  7. Jassal SK, von Muhlen D, Barrett-Connor E. Measures of renal function, BMD, bone loss, and osteoporotic fracture in older adults: the Rancho Bernardo study. J Bone Miner Res. 2007;22(2):203–210
  8. Moe S, Drueke T, Cunningham J, et al. Definition, evaluation, and classification of renal osteodystrophy: a position statement from Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). Kidney Int. 2006;69:1945–1953
  9. Block GA, Cunningham J. Morbidity and mortality associated with abnormalities in bone and mineral metabolsm in CKD. In:  Olgaard K editors. Clinical Guide to the Basics of Bone and Mineral Metabolism in CKD. New York, NY: National Kidney Foundation; 2006;p. 77–92
  10. Wilkins CH, Birge SJ. Prevention of osteoporotic fractures in the elderly. Am J Med. 2005;118(11):1190–1195
  11. Benhamou CL. Effects of osteoporosis medications on bone quality. Joint Bone Spine. 2007;74(1):39–47
  12. Kasiske BL, Zeier MG, Chapman JR, et al. KDIGO: clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder. Kidney Int Suppl. 2009;113:S1–S140
  13. Ott SM. Bone histomorphometry in renal osteodystrophy. Semin Nephrol. 2009;29:122–132
  14. Levin A, Bakris GL, Molitch M, et al. Prevalence of abnormal serum vitamin D, PTH, calcium, and phosphorous in patients with chronic kidney disease: results of the study to evaluate early kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2007;71:31–38
  15. Razzaque MS, Lanske B. The emerging role of the fibroblast growth factor-23-Klotho axis in renal regulation of phosphate homeostasis. J Endocrinol. 2007;194:1–10
  16. Klawansky S, Komaroff E, Cavanaugh PFJ, et al. Relationship between age, renal function and bone mineral density in the US population. Osteoporosis Int. 2003;14:570–576
  17. Alem AM, Sherrard DJ, Gillen DL, et al. Increased risk of hip fracture among patients with end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int. 2000;58(1):396–399
  18. Coco M, Rush H. Increased incidence of hip fractures in dialysis patients with low serum parathyroid hormone. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000;36(6):1115–1121
  19. Stehman-Breen C, Sherrard DJ, Alem AM, et al. Risk factors for hip fracture among patients with end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int. 2000;58(5):2200–2205
  20. Ensrud KE, Lui L-Y, Taylor BC, et al. Renal function and risk of hip and vertebral fractures among older women. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:133–139
  21. Sherman ME, Shepherd J, Frassetto L, Genant HK. Discrepancy in results between spine and hip scans of a woman with end stage renal disease. J Clin Densitom. 2002;5(1):95–98
  22. Schober HC, Han ZH, Foldes AJ, et al. Mineralized bone loss at different sites in dialysis patients: implications for prevention. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1998;9(7):1225–1233
  23. Jamal SA, Hayden JA, Beyene J. Low bone mineral density and fractures in long-term hemodialysis patients: a meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007;49(5):674–681
  24. Lobão R, Carvalho AB, Cuppari L, et al. High prevalence of low bone mineral density in pre-dialysis chronic kidney disease patients: bone histomorphometric analysis. Clin Nephrol. 2004;62(6):432–439
  25. Marshall D, Johnell O, Wedel H. Meta-analysis of how well measures of bone mineral density predict occurrence of osteoporotic fractures. BMJ. 1996;312(7041):1254–1259
  26. Bouxsein ML. Technology insight: noninvasive assessment of bone strength in osteoporosis. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol. 2008;4(6):310–318
  27. Schuit SC, van der Klift M, Weel AE, et al. Fracture incidence and association with bone mineral density in elderly men and women: the Rotterdam Study. Bone. 2004;34(1):195–202
  28. Riggs BL, Melton LJ, Robb RA, et al. Population-based study of age and sex differences in bone volumetric density, size, geometry, and structure at different skeletal sites. J Bone Miner Res. 2004;19(12):1945–1954
  29. Gasser JA. Assessing bone quantity by pQCT. Bone. 1995;17(4 suppl):145S–154S
  30. Lima EM, Goodman WG, Kuizon BD, et al. Bone density measurements in pediatric patients with renal osteodystrophy. Pediatr Nephrol. 2003;18(6):554–559
  31. Wehrli FW, Leonard MB, Saha PK, Gomberg BR. Quantitative high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging reveals structural implications of renal osteodystrophy on trabecular and cortical bone. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2004;20(1):83–89
  32. Stewart A, Kumar V, Reid DM. Long-term fracture prediction by DXA and QUS: a 10-year prospective study. J Bone Miner Res. 2006;21(3):413–418
  33. Foldes AJ, Arnon E, Popovtzer MM. Reduced speed of sound in tibial bone of haemodialysed patients: association with serum PTH level. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1996;11(7):1318–1321
  34. da Costa JA, de Castro JA, Foss MC. The evaluation of renal osteodystrophy with cortical quantitative ultrasound at various bone sites. Ren Fail. 2004;26(3):237–241
  35. Montagnani A, Gonnelli S, Cepollaro C, et al. Quantitative ultrasound in the assessment of skeletal status in uremic patients. J Clin Densitom. 1999;2(4):389–395
  36. Miller PD. Diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis in chronic renal disease. Semin Nephrol. 2009;29(2):144–155
  37. Araújo SM, Ambrosoni P, Lobão RR, et al. The renal osteodystrophy pattern in Brazil and Uruguay: an overview. Kidney Int Suppl. 2003;85:S54–S56
  38. The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions Bone Histomorphometry Laboratory. Tetracycline labeling. http://pathology2.jhu.edu/bonelab/4cycline.htmAccessed March 17, 2010
  39. Parfitt AM, Drezner MK, Glorieux FH, et al. Bone histomorphometry: standardization of nomenclature, symbols, and units (Report of the ASBMR Histomorphometry Nomenclature Committee). J Bone Miner Res. 1987;2(6):595–610
  40. Wimalawansa SJ. Rationale for using nitric oxide donor therapy for prevention of bone loss and treatment of osteoporosis in humans. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1117:283–297
  41. US Department of Health and Human Services. Bone Health and Osteoporosis (A report of the surgeon general). Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services; 2004;http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/bonehealth/content.htmlAccessed March 17, 2010
  42. Hodgson SF, Watts NB, Bilezkian JP, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the prevention and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis: 2001 edition with selected updates for 2003. Endocr Pract. 2003;9(6):544–564
  43. Heinonen A, Oja P, Kannus P, et al. Bone mineral density in female athletes respresenting sports with different loading characteristics. Bone. 1995;17:197–203
  44. Wallace BA, Cumming RG. Systematic review of randomized trials of the effect of exercise on bone mass in pre- and postmenopausal women. Calcif Tissue Int. 2000;67:10–18
  45. Wolff I, van Croonenborg JJ, Kemper HCG, Kostense PJ, Twisk JWR. The effect of exercise training programs on bone mass: a meta-analysis of published controlled trials in pre- and postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int. 1999;9:1–12
  46. Yamazaki S, Ichimura S, Iwamoto J, Takeda T, Toyama Y. Effect of walking exercise on bone metabolism in postmenopausal women with osteopenia/osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Metab. 2004;22:500–508
  47. Spindler A, Paz S, Berman A, et al. Muscular strength and bone mineral density in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1997;12:128–132
  48. Kouidi E, Albani M, Konstantinos N, et al. The effects of exercise training on muscle atrophy in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1998;13:685–699
  49. O'Loughlin JL, Robitaille Y, Boivin JF, Suissa S. Incidence and risk for falls and injurious falls among community-dwelling elderly. Am J Epidemiol. 1993;137:342–354
  50. North American Menopause Society. Management of postmenopausal osteoporosis: position statement of the North American Menopause Society. Menopause. 2002;9:84–101
  51. National Osteoporosis Foundation. Patient Info: Fall Prevention. http://www.nof.org/patientinfo/fall_prevention.htmAccessed March 17, 2010
  52. Chamay A, Tschantz P. Mechanical influences in bone remodeling. J Biomech. 1972;5:173–180
  53. Lekamwasam SW, Rodrigo M, Arachchi WK, Munidasa D. Association between bone mineral density, lean mass, and fat mass among healthy middle-aged premenopausal women: a cross-sectional study in southern Sri Lanka. J Bone Miner Metab. 2009;27:83–88
  54. Segal NA, Torner JC, Yang M, et al. Muscle mass is more strongly related to hip bone mineral density than is quadriceps strength or lower activity level in adults over age 50 years. J Clin Densitom. 2008;11:503–510
  55. Lima RM, Bezerra LM, Rabelo HT, Silva MA, Bottaro M, de Oliveira RJ. Fat-free mass, strength and sarcopenia are related to bone mineral density in older women. J Clin Densitom. 2009;12:35–41
  56. Raisz LG, Niemann I. Effect of phosphate, calcium and magnesium on bone resorption and hormonal responses in tissue culture. Endocrinology. 1969;85:446–452
  57. Slatopolsky E, Caglar S, Pennell JP, et al. On the pathogenesis of hyperparathyroidism in chronic experimental renal insufficiency in the dog. J Clin Invest. 1971;50(3):492–499
  58. Oste L, Behets GJ, Dams G, et al. Role of dietary phosphorus and degree of uremia in the development of renal bone disease in rats. Ren Fail. 2007;29(1):1–12
  59. Kusano K, Segawa H, Ohnishi R, Fukushima N, Miyamoto K. Role of low protein and low phosphorus diet in the progression of chronic kidney disease in uremic rats. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2008;54(3):237–243
  60. Norris KC, Greene T, Kopple J, et al. Baseline predictors of renal disease progression in the African American study of hypertension and kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17:2928–2936
  61. Schwartz S, Trivedi BK, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Kovesdy CP. Association of disorders in mineral metabolism with progression of chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;1:825–831
  62. Voormolen N, Noordzji M, Grootendorst DC, et al. PREPARE Study Group High plasma phosphate as a risk factor for decline in renal function and mortality in pre-dialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2007;22:2909–2916
  63. Kestenbaum B, Sampson JN, Rudser KD, et al. Serum phosphate levels and mortality risk among people with chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:293–295
  64. Sigrist MK, Chiarelli G, Lim L, Levin A. Early initiation of phosphate lowering dietary therapy in non-dialysis chronic kidney disease. J Ren Care. 2009;35:71–78
  65. Lafage MH, Combe C, Fournier A, Aparicio M. Ketodiet, physiological calcium intake and native vitamin D improve renal osteodystrophy. Kidney Int. 1992;56:2333–2341
  66. Lafage-Proust M-H, Combe C, Barthe N, Aparicio M. Bone mass and dynamic parathyroid function according to bone histology in nondialyzed uremic patients after long-term protein and phosphorous restriction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:512–519
  67. Rucker D, Tonelli M, Coles MG, Yoo S, Young K, McMahon AW. Vitamin D insufficiency and treatment with oral D3 in northern-dwelling patients with chronic disease. J Nephrol. 2009;22:75–82
  68. St. John A, Thomas MB, Davies CP, et al. Determinants of intact parathyroid hormone and free 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D levels in mild and moderate renal failure. Nephron. 1992;61:422–427
  69. Ishimura E, Nishizawa Y, Inaba M, et al. Serum levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, and 25-hydroxyvitamin D in nondialyzed patients with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int. 1999;55:1019–1027
  70. Eknoyan G, Levin A, Levin N. Bone metabolism and disease in chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 2003;42:1–201
  71. Pentti K, Tuppurainen MT, Honkanen R, et al. Use of calcium supplements and the risk of coronary heart disease in 52-62-year-old women: the Kuopio Osteoporosis Risk Factor and Prevention Study. Maturitas. 2009;63:73–78
  72. Reid IR, Mason AR, Reid HE, et al. Randomized controlled trial of calcium supplementation in healthy, nonsteoporotic, older men. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:2276–2282
  73. Bolland MJ, Barber PA, Doughty RN, et al. Vascular events in healthy older women receiving calcium supplementation: randomized controlled trial. BMJ. 2008;336:262–266
  74. Russell RG, Watts NB, Ebertino FH, Rogers MJ. Mechanisms of action of bisphosphonates: similarities, differences and their poential influence on clinical efficacy. Osteoporos Int. 2008;19:733–759
  75. Lin JH. Bisphosphonates: a review of their pharmakinetic properties. Bone. 1996;18:75–85
  76. Troehler U, Bonjour JP, Fleisch H. Renal secretion of diphosphonates in rats. Kidney Int. 1975;8:6–13
  77. Whitson HF, Lobaugh B, Lyles KW. Severe hypocalcemia following bisphosphonate treatment in a patient with Paget's disease of bone. Bone. 2006;39:954–958
  78. Maalouf N, Heller HJ, Odvina CV, Kim PJ, Sakhee K. Bisphosphonate-induced hypocalcemia: report of 3 cases and review of the literature. Endocr Pract. 2006;12:48–53
  79. Pfister T, Atzopodien E, Borhmann BFB. Acute renal effects of three intravenous bisphosphonates in the rat. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2005;97:374–381
  80. Chang JT, Green L, Beitz J. Renal failure with the use of zoledronic acid. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1676–1679
  81. Markowitz GS, Fine PL, Stack JL, et al. Toxic acute tubular necrosis following treatment with zolendronate (Smeta). Kidney Int. 2003;64:281–289
  82. Miller PD, Roux C, Boonen S, Barton I, Dunlop L, Burgio D. Safety and efficiacy of risedronate in patients with age-related reduced renal function as estimated by the Cockcroft and Gault method: a pooled analysis of nine clinical trials. J Bone Miner Res. 2005;20:2105–2115
  83. Jamal SA, Bauer DC, Ensrud KE, et al. Alendronate treatment in women with normal to severely impaired renal function: an analysis of the fracture intervention trial. J Bone Miner Res. 2007;22:503–508
  84. Boonen S, Sellmeyer DE, Lippuner K, Orlov-Morozov A, Abrams K, Messenbrink P. Renal safety of annual zoledronic acid infusions in osteoporotic postmenopausal women. Kidney Int. 2008;74:641–648
  85. Bergner R, Henrich D, Hoffmann M, Schmidt-Gayk H, Lenz T, Upperkamp M. Treatment of reduced bone density with ibandronate in dialysis patients. J Nephrol. 2008;21(4):510–516
  86. Perazella MA, Markowitz GS. Bisphosphonate nephrotoxicity. Kidney Int. 2008;74:1385–1393
  87. Wetmore JB, Benet LZ, Kleinstuck D, Frassetto L. Effects of short-term alendronate on bone mineral density in haemodialysis patients. Nephrology (Carlton). 2005;10:393–399
  88. Falahati-Nini A, Riggs BL, Atkinson EJ, O'Fallon WM, Eastell R, Khosla S. Relative contributions of testosterone and estrogen in regulating bone resorption and formation in normal elderly men. J Clin Invest. 2000;106:1553–1560
  89. Szulc P, Munoz F, Claustrat B, et al. Bioavailable estradiol may be an important determinant of osteoporosis in men: the MINOS Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:192–199
  90. Packer E, Holloway L, Newhall K, Kanwar G, Butterfield G, Marcus R. Effects of estrogen on daylong circulating calcium, phosphorous, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, and parathyroid hormone in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res. 1990;5:877–883
  91. Cauley JA, Robbins J, Chen Z, et al. Effects of estrogen plus progestin on risk of fracture and bone mineral density: the Women's Health Initiative randomized trial. JAMA. 2003;290:1729–1738
  92. Lim VS, Henriquez C, Sieversten G, Frohman LA. Ovarian function in chronic renal failure: evidence of hypothalmic anovulation. Ann Intern Med. 1980;93(1):21–27
  93. Weisinger JR, Gonzalez L, Alvarez H, et al. Role of persistent amenorrhea in bone mineral metabolism of young hemodialyzed women. Kidney Int. 2000;58:331–335
  94. Matuszkiewicz-Rowinska J, Skorzewska K, Radowicki S, et al. The benefits of hormone replacement therapy in premenopausal women with oestrogen deficiency on haemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1999;14:1238–1243
  95. Anderson GD, Odegard PS. Pharmacokinetics of estrogen and progesterone in chronic kidney disease. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2004;11:357–360
  96. Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T, et al. Randomized controlled trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women (Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group). JAMA. 1998;280:605–613
  97. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;288:321–333
  98. Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291:1701–1712
  99. Morello KC, Wurz GT, DeGregorio MW. Pharmacokinetics of selective oestrogen receptor modulators. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2003;42:361–372
  100. Ettinger B, Black DM, Mitlak BH, et al. Reduction of vertebral fracture risk in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis treated with raloxifene: results from a 3-year randomized clinical trial (Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation (MORE) Investigators). JAMA. 1999;282:637–645
  101. Ishani A, Blackwell T, Jamal SA, Cummings SR, Ensrud KE. The effect of raloxifene treatment in postmenopausal women with CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;19:1430–1438
  102. Weisinger JR, Heilberg Pfeferman I, Hernandez E, Carlini R, Bellorin-Font E. Selective estogen receptor modulators in chronic renal failure. Kidney Int Suppl. 2003;85:S62–S65
  103. Grady D, Ettinger B, Moscarelli E, et al. Safety and adverse effects associated with raloxifene: Multiple outcomes of raloxifene evaluation. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;104:837–844
  104. Overgard K, Hansen MA, Jensen SB, Chrstensen C. Effect of salcatonin given intranasally on bone mass and fracture rates in established osteoporosis: a dose-response study. BMJ. 1992;305:556–561
  105. Ellerington MC, Hillard TC, Whitecroft SI, et al. Intranasal salmon calcitonin for the prevention and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Calcif Tissue Int. 1996;59:6–11
  106. Chestnut CHI, Silverman SI, Andriano K, et al. A randomized trial of nasal spray salmon calcitonin on postmenopausal women with established osteoporosis: The Prevent Recurrence of Osteoporotic Fractures Study (PROOF Study Group). Am J Med. 2000;109:267–276
  107. D'Angelo A, Bonucci E, Giannini S, et al. Exogenous calcitonin protects against renal bone disease in rats with early renal failure. Bone Miner. 1987;3:171–176
  108. Matuszkiewicz-Rowinska J, Niemczyk S, Przedlacki J, Puka J, Switalski M, Ostrowski K. Effect of salmon calcitonin on bone mineral density and calcium-phosphate metaboism in chronic hemodialysis patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism. Pol Arch Med Wewn. 2004;112:797–803
  109. Matuszkiewicz-Rowinska J, Niemczyk S, Puka J, et al. Combined therapy with calcitonin and high doses of active vitamin D3 metabolites in uremic hyperparathroidism. Pol Arch Med Wewn. 1996;96:23–31
  110. Muff R, Dambacher MA, Fischer JA. Formation of neutralizing antibodies during intranasal synthetic salmon calcitonin treatment of postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int. 1991;1:72–75
  111. Takahashi S, Goldring S, Katz M, Hilsenbeck S, Williams R, Roodman GD. Downregulation of calcitonin receptor mRNA expression by calcitonin during hunam osteoclast-like cell differentiation. J Clin Invest. 1995;95(1):167–171
  112. Silverman SI. Calcitonin. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2003;32:273–284
  113. Blick SKA, Dhillon S, Keam SJ. Teriparatide (A review of its use in osteoporosis). Drugs. 2008;68:2709–2737
  114. Miller PD, Schwartz EN, Chen P, Misurski DA, Krege JH. Teriparatide in postmenpausal women with osteoporosis and mild or moderate renal impairment. Osteoporos Int. 2007;18:59–68
  115. Jackson JA, Spiekerman AM. Testosterone deficiency is common in men with hip fracture after simple falls. Clin Res. 1989;37:131–136
  116. Baille SP, Davison CE, Johnson FJ, Francis RM. Pathogenesis of vertebral crush fractures in men. Age Ageing. 1992;21:139–141
  117. Albaaj F, Sivalingham M, Haynes P, et al. Prevalence of hypogonadism in male patients with renal failure. Postgrad Med. 2006;82:693–696
  118. Johansen KL. Testosterone metabolism and replacement therapy in patients with end-stage disease. Semin Dial. 2004;17:202–208
  119. Francis RM, Peacock M, Aaron JE, et al. Osteoporosis in hypogonadal men: role of decreased plasma 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, calcium malabsorption and low bone formation. Bone. 1986;7:261–268
  120. Colvard DS, Eriksen EF, Keeting PE, et al. Indentification of androgen receptors in normal human osteoblast-like cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989;86:854–857
  121. Anderson FH, Francis RM, Selby PL, Cooper C. Sex hormones and osteoporosis in men. Calcif Tissue Int. 1998;62:185–188
  122. Tracz MJ, Sidera K, Bolon ERA. Clinical review: testosterone use in men and its effects on bone health (A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:2011–2016
  123. Bassil N, Alkaade S, Morley JE. The benefits and risks of testosterone replacement therapy: a review. Ther Clin Risk Manage. 2009;5:427–448
  124. Need AG, Morris HA, Hartley TF, Horowitz M, Nordin BE. Effects of nandrolone decanoate on forearm mineral density and calcium metabolism in osteoporotic postmenopausal women. Calcif Tissue Int. 1987;41:7–10
  125. Geusens P. Nandrolone decanoate: pharmacological properties and therapeutic use in osteoporosis. Clin Rheum. 1995;14(suppl 3):32–39
  126. Frisoli A, Chaves PHM, Pinheiro MM, Szejnfeld VL. The effect of nandrolone decanoate on bone mineral density, muscle mass, and hemoglobin levels in elderly women with osteoporosis: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Gerontol Med Sci. 2005;60A:648–653
  127. Eiam-Ong S, Buranaosot S, Eiam-Ong S, Wathanavaha A, Pansin P. Nutritional effect of nandrolone decanoate in predialysis patients with chronic kidney disease. J Ren Nutr. 2007;17:173–178
  128. Johansen KL, Mulligan K, Schambelan M. Anabolic effects of nandrolone in patients receiving dialysis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1999;28:1275–1281
  129. Johansen KL, Painter PL, Sakkas GK, Gordon P, Doyle J, Shubert T. Effects of resistance training and nandrolone decanoate on body composition and muscle function among patients who receive hemodialysis: a randomized, controlled trial. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17:2307–2314
  130. de Brito-Ashurst I, Varagunam M, Raftery MJ, Yaqoob MM. Bicarbonate supplementation slows progression of CKD and improves nutritional status. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;20:2075–2084
  131. Melamed M, Neugarten J, Blackwell T, et al. The protective effects on kidney function of 4 years of treatment with raloxifene, a selective estrogen receptor modulator: results from the MORE Trial [abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007;18:544A
  132. Kielstein JT, Zoccali C. Asymmetric dimethylarginine: a novel marker of risk and a potential target for therapy in chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2008;17(6):609–615
  133. Widmer B, Gerhardt RE, Harrington JT, Cohen JJ. Serum electrolytes and acid base composition: the influence of graded degrees of chronic renal failure. Arch Intern Med. 1979;139:1099–1102
  134. Frick KK, Krieger NS, Nehrke K, Bushinsky DA. Metabolic acidosis increases intracellular calcium in bone cells through activation of the proton receptor OGR1. J Bone Miner Res. 2009;24(2):305–313
  135. Frassetto L, Morris RC, Sebastian A. Long-term persistance of the urine calcium-lowering effect of potassium bicarbonate in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:831–834
  136. Dawson-Hughes B, Harris SS, Palermo NJ, Castaneda-Sceppa C, Rasmussen HM, Dallal GE. Treatment with potassium bicarbonate lowers calcium excretion and bone resorption in older men and women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94:96–102
  137. Domrongkitchaiporn S, Pongskul C, Sirikulchayanonta V, et al. Bone histology and bone mineral density after correction of acidosis in distal renal tubular acidosis. Kidney Int. 2002;62:2160–2166
  138. Mitch WE, Medina R, Grieber S, et al. Metabolic acidosis stimulates muscle protein degradation by activating the adenosine triphosphate-dependent pathway involving ubiquitin and proteosomes. J Clin Invest. 1994;93:2127–2133
  139. Nabhan AF, Rabie NH. Isosorbide mononitrate versus alendronate for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2008;103(3):213–216
  140. Jamal SA, Goltzman D, Hanley DA, Papaioannou A, Prior JC, Josse RG. Nitrate use and changes in bone mineral density: the Canadian Multicentre Osteoporosis Study. Osteoporos Int. 2009;20(5):737–744
  141. Dormuth CR, Carney G, Carleton B, Wright JM. Thiazolidinediones and fractures in men and women. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169:1395–1402

PII: S0272-6386(10)00481-6

doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2010.02.338

American Journal of Kidney Diseases
Volume 55, Issue 5 , Pages 941-956 , May 2010